Prince Arthur

Arthur, Prince of Wales

circa 1500

Private collection, Hever Castle, Kent

Arthur, Prince of Wales was born on the 19th or 20th of September 1486 and was the eldest son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York and the elder brother of Henry VIII. His birth represented the symbolic union of the warring Houses of Lancaster and York, helping to cement the Tudor dynasty after the Wars of the Roses.

Named after the legendary King Arthur, he was born in Winchester, a city associated with Camelot, fulfilling Henry VII’s efforts to evoke a new golden age for England. Arthur became Duke of Cornwall at birth and was made Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in 1489. His christening at Winchester Cathedral was attended by notable figures, including his grandmother Elizabeth Woodville and aunt Cecily of York.

Arthur was highly valued as the future of the Tudors and was given an extensive household and education. His tutors included leading scholars such as Bernard André and Thomas Linacre. He studied Latin, classical literature, rhetoric, and history, and was described as an intelligent, capable, and amiable youth. Contemporary accounts note his tall stature, reddish hair, and resemblance to his younger brother, Henry.

From a young age, Arthur was involved in governance. He was made Warden of the Marches towards Scotland in 1490 and later Keeper of England when his father travelled to France. A Council of Wales and the Marches was established to strengthen royal authority in the region, and Arthur was based at Ludlow Castle from 1493.

Arthur’s marriage was central to Tudor foreign policy. By age three, plans were in place to marry him to Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The Treaty of Medina del Campo (1489) arranged the marriage, aiming to solidify an Anglo-Spanish alliance against France. A papal dispensation was granted due to their young ages, and the couple were formally betrothed by proxy in 1497.

Arthur and Catherine exchanged affectionate letters in Latin, though they struggled to understand each other's pronunciation. Catherine arrived in England in October 1501, and the pair were married on the 14th of November 1501 at St Paul’s Cathedral. Their wedding was a grand affair followed by a public bedding ceremony, unique in 16th-century England.

After their marriage, Arthur and Catherine moved to Ludlow Castle. However, in March of 1502, both fell ill with an unknown disease possibly sweating sickness, plague, tuberculosis, or influenza. Arthur sadly succumbed to his illness and died on the 2nd of April 1502, just shy of his 16th birthday. Catherine thankfully survived the illness, but Arthur’s death was a severe blow to Catherine, his family and the Tudor succession plans. His body was interred at Worcester Cathedral, where a chantry was later built over his tomb.

His death reshaped English history. With Arthur gone, his younger brother Henry became heir. Catherine remained in England and was vulnerable for some time however, after papal dispensation, she married Henry in 1509 shortly after his accession to the throne. However, their marriage would become a focal point of political and religious crisis. 

The issue of whether Arthur and Catherine consummated their marriage became critical decades later. Catherine always maintained they had not, but Henry VIII used the claim that they had as justification for annulment when he sought to marry Anne Boleyn. This eventually led to the break with Rome and the English Reformation.

Arthur’s legacy is subtle but profound. Though he never ruled, his brief life shaped the course of Tudor politics and the religious future of England. He is buried at Worcester Cathedral; his bowels were separately interred at St Laurence’s Church in Ludlow, where a stained-glass image commemorates him. A portrait of Arthur, owned by Henry VIII, was rediscovered in more recent times.

In 2002, the 500th anniversary of Arthur’s death was commemorated with a requiem mass at Worcester Cathedral. Despite being once hailed as the great hope of the Tudor dynasty, Arthur remains one of its more overlooked figures, overshadowed by the dramatic reign of his brother.

Free Prince Arthur Worksheet

Prince Arthur Worksheet

Elizabeth Woodville.

Elizabeth Woodville: From Northamptonshire Widow to Queen of England, and Grandmother of the Tudors

Elizabeth Woodville  

If you stand on the ridge above Grafton Regis, a sleepy Northamptonshire village of stone cottages and hedgerows, it’s hard to picture the woman born there in c. 1437 who would upend the English throne. Elizabeth Woodville, later queen to Yorkist king Edward IV, and ultimately grandmother to Henry VIII, straddled two civil wars, navigated lethal court politics, and left a family tree that still shapes how we think about the late Middle Ages. Yet her story feels surprisingly modern: a whirlwind romance, a blended family, ruthless rivals, and the strain of constant public scrutiny. 

 

The country girl and the scandalous first marriage

Elizabeth’s parents were an odd pair for 15th‑century England. Her father, Sir Richard Woodville, was respectable gentry who’d made good through military service; her mother, Jacquetta of Luxembourg, was high European nobility and the widowed Duchess of Bedford, once aunt‑by‑marriage to Henry VI. Their elopement, they skipped the king’s permission and paid a fine later, was already tabloid material. Elizabeth, their eldest, grew up in a large, ambitious household that was noble enough to mingle with kings but provincial enough to stick out at court.

Around 1452 she married John Grey of Groby, a Lancastrian knight. The match looked promising until the Wars of the Roses erupted in 1455. John fought for Henry VI and died at the second Battle of St Albans in 1461, leaving Elizabeth a 24‑year‑old widow with two little boys, Thomas and Richard. She moved back to her parents’ estate, her future uncertain, until a chance meeting changed everything.

A secret marriage that shocked England

King Edward IV (1732)  Artist George Vertue

Legend says the widowed Elizabeth waited under an oak tree near the royal hunting lodge at Stony Stratford to petition the new king, Edward IV, for her sons’ inheritance. Whether oak tree romance or scheming Woodville stage craft, the 22 year old monarch was smitten. On the 1^st of May 1464 they married in secret, with only Elizabeth’s mother and two ladies present. For medieval England, the union broke every rule. Kings married foreign princesses to gain alliances and dowries, not widows of minor lords with two kids, never mind that Edward also skipped the advice of his most powerful adviser, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, soon to be labelled “the Kingmaker.” When the marriage became public, courtiers spluttered. Warwick’s French diplomacy collapsed. The king’s own Privy Council muttered that Elizabeth was “no wife for a prince.”Edward didn’t care. He threw a lavish public coronation for his commoner bride in 1465 and began marrying her large brood of brothers and sisters into England’s top families. From the Nevilles to the Staffords, everyone suddenly had Woodville in‑laws, and plenty of resentment.

Queen in a war zone

The Woodville boom enraged Warwick. In 1469 he rebelled, captured Edward, and executed Elizabeth’s father and favourite brother. A year later he switched sides entirely, restoring Henry VI to the throne for a few chaotic months. Pregnant and vulnerable, Elizabeth fled into sanctuary at Westminster Abbey, where in the dim candle light of a makeshift lodging she gave birth to the future Edward V.Edward IV bounced back in 1471, defeating Warwick at Barnet and the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury. By summer the queen was back in splendour, mother now to a dozen children, two from her first marriage, ten from her second. Yet court life never settled. Edward’s philandering , Jane Shore was only the most famous mistress, and the jealousy of royal brothers kept the atmosphere sharp.

Widowhood again-and the Princes in the Tower

Description	"The Princes in the Tower"
Date	1878

 By Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Baronet

When Edward IV unexpectedly died in April 1483, probably of pneumonia, Elizabeth became dowager queen at 46. Her son, now Edward V, was 12, and per custom his uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, acted as Lord Protector. Almost immediately Richard seized the boy, arrested Elizabeth’s Woodville kinsmen, and, citing an alleged pre contract between Edward IV and another woman, had Parliament declare Elizabeth’s marriage invalid. Overnight her children were branded illegitimate.Edward V and his little brother Richard were lodged in the Tower of London for what everyone assumed would be a brief wait until the coronation. They were never seen again. Their presumed murder still fuels debate, but Richard III took the crown, and Elizabeth, stripped of lands and retitled “Dame Elizabeth Grey”, retreated once more into sanctuary at Westminster with her daughters.

The chess move that birthed the Tudors

Elizabeth was down but not out. She opened secret negotiations with Margaret Beaufort, another formidable widowed mother whose exiled son, Henry Tudor, had a shaky but traceable Lancastrian claim. The two women agreed: if Henry could seize the throne, he would marry Elizabeth’s eldest daughter, also named Elizabeth, uniting York and Lancaster. In December 1483 Henry swore the pledge publicly in Rennes Cathedral.

Two years later, on a Leicestershire field called Bosworth, Richard III fell, and Henry VII became king. He married Elizabeth of York in January 1486, launching the Tudor dynasty and all but ending the War of the Roses. Although there would still be uprisings like at the Battle of Stoke that took place of the 16^th of June 1487. The Battle of Stoke was the last major battle in the War of the Roses. Elizabeth Woodville was restored to her full rank, but court politics were now dominated by Henry’s fiercely protective mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort. Whether side-lined by the new regime or by her own choice, Elizabeth retired in February 1487 to Bermondsey Abbey, across the Thames from the Tower that had once caged her sons.

Quiet twilight and final mysteries

Bermondsey Abbey wasn’t a grim exile; queens dowager often adopted semi religious retirements. Henry VII gave Elizabeth a pension, and she attended the christenings of her Tudor grandchildren Margaret (the future queen of Scotland) and Henry (the future Henry VIII). Yet royal visits were rare, and contemporary rumours linked her withdrawal to Yorkist plots like the Lambert Simnel rising.

On the 8^th of June 1492, Elizabeth Woodville died at around 55. Her will asked for the simplest funeral possible. Four days later, carried by barge up the Thames, she was laid beside Edward IV in St George’s Chapel, Windsor. Chroniclers noted the ceremony’s restraint; modern historians debate whether austerity reflected Henry VII’s parsimony or her own explicit wish. A 1511 Venetian dispatch even claims she succumbed to plague, explaining the haste.

What remains of Elizabeth Woodville?

A dynastic linchpin. Through her daughter Elizabeth of York, she is grandmother to Henry VIII, great‑grandmother to Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I, every Tudor monarch. A cautionary tale of power and backlash. She showed how quickly favour could curdle: elevate siblings too fast, anger the nobles, and pay in blood. A rare medieval love story. Whatever Edward’s motives, he defied political logic for a private marriage, making Elizabeth England’s first commoner queen and setting precedents for later surprise unions (hello, Henry VIII and Jane Seymour). A survivor’s blueprint. She endured two wars, two widowhoods, the execution of close kin, and the disappearance of her sons and yet still maneuvered to see her grandchildren on the throne.

Why she still fascinates us

Elizabeth Woodville embodies the razor’s edge between ambition and catastrophe. She was romantic heroine and ruthless matriarch, power broker and pawn. Shakespeare paints her as grief stricken mother cursing Richard III; Philippa Gregory casts her as white witch in The White Queen. Academic biographies probe whether she orchestrated politics or merely reacted to crisis.

Strip away the legend and you meet a resourceful woman making high stakes choices in an age when female agency was usually confined to the marriage bed. She married for love, or opportunity, stood up to titans like Warwick and Richard III, and forged alliances that reshaped England. Her life reminds us that behind every royal chronicle lies a human story of risk, loss, and astonishing resilience.

Next time you stroll through Windsor’s echoing chapel or glance at a Tudor portrait, spare a thought for Elizabeth Woodville: the country knight’s daughter who became queen by chance, survived by cunning, and mothered a dynasty that still captures our imagination half a millennium later.

Free Worksheet.

Elizabeth Woodville Worksheet.

Elizabeth of York

Elizabeth of York: England’s Rose Who United a Nation

Meynnart Wewyck

Elizabeth of York (1465-1503) 

between circa 1470 and circa 1498

Elizabeth of York (1466–1503) was Queen of England from 1486 until her death in 1503. Born into the House of York as the daughter of King Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville, her marriage to Henry VII marked the end of the Wars of the Roses and the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. Through this union, Elizabeth symbolised the reconciliation of warring factions, becoming a vital figure in England’s dynastic and national stability.

A Royal Beginning

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Elizabeth was born at Westminster Palace on the 11th of February 1466. As the firstborn child of King Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville, she was part of a prominent royal family. Her early life was marked by political instability. At age three, she was briefly betrothed to George Neville, and at nine, to Charles, Dauphin of France. Neither match materialised.

She was named a Lady of the Garter at just 11, a rare honour, reflecting her status and the high hopes placed upon her. 

Sister Of a Lost King.

The political landscape shifted dramatically after her father’s sudden death in 1483. Her brother Edward V briefly succeeded to the throne, but their uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, declared Edward illegitimate and took the crown as Richard III. Elizabeth and her siblings were declared bastards through the Titulus Regius, and her younger brothers, the Princes in the Tower, vanished, presumed murdered.

Elizabeth and her mother sought sanctuary in Westminster Abbey, where they remained for ten months. Rumours swirled that Richard III intended to marry Elizabeth himself after his wife’s death, though these were likely unfounded. Instead, plans were made for Elizabeth to wed Henry Tudor, a distant Lancastrian claimant to the throne.

Union of Roses

Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, ending the Wars of the Roses. Although, there were other attempted Yorkist uprising. To solidify his rule and unite the feuding houses, Henry married Elizabeth on the 18th of January 1486. Though slow to fulfill his promise, he ultimately recognised the importance of their marriage, repealed Titulus Regius, and legitimized Elizabeth’s siblings.

Their union gave rise to the Tudor Rose, a fusion of the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York, symbolising the healing of a divided nation.

A Quiet Queen

Elizabeth was crowned queen in November 1487 and quickly took to her duties. Though she played little part in political affairs, likely overshadowed by Henry’s formidable mother, Margaret Beaufort, Elizabeth was known for her grace, generosity, and piety. She gave to charity frequently, patronised religious institutions, and supported printers like William Caxton, showing an early interest in literature and learning.

She bore seven children, including Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, Queen of Scots, Henry VIII, Mary, Queen of France, and several others who died young.

A Devoted Marriage

While their marriage began as a political alliance, Elizabeth and Henry VII appear to have developed genuine affection. Letters and financial records reveal mutual respect, shared interests, and moments of tenderness. Elizabeth enjoyed music, dancing, and gambling, often joining her husband in games and festivities. She was also involved in architectural projects, including the redesign of Greenwich Palace.

Despite their differences, they supported each other through personal tragedies. When Arthur died in 1502, Elizabeth comforted Henry in his grief, reminding him of their surviving children and offering hope. Later, in private, she succumbed to her own sorrow.

Her Final Chapter

Elizabeth became pregnant again in 1502 but died from postpartum complications on her 37th birthday in 1503, shortly after giving birth to a daughter, Katherine, who also died. Her death left Henry VII devastated; he secluded himself for days and never remarried, though he entertained the idea for diplomatic purposes.

Her funeral was held at Westminster Abbey, where she is buried alongside Henry in the Lady Chapel they helped found. Her tomb, topped with bronze effigies by Pietro Torrigiano, remains a striking memorial to one of England’s most important queens.

Legacy

Elizabeth of York’s greatest legacy lies in her symbolic role as a unifier. Through her marriage, the centuries old conflict between York and Lancaster was brought to a close. Her children carried the Tudor dynasty forward, most notably Henry VIII, under whom England underwent religious and political transformation.

Her image, often idealised, survives in art and literature, and she is remembered as a figure of beauty, virtue, and quiet strength. A mother of monarchs and a queen by both blood and marriage, Elizabeth helped lay the foundations for a new era in English history.

George Neville, Duke of Bedford.

George Neville, Duke of Bedford (1465 – 4 May 1483) was an English nobleman from the powerful House of Neville. He was the son of John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu, and Isabel Ingoldsthorpe, heiress of Sir Edmund Ingoldsthorpe and Joan Tiptoft. As a child, George stood to inherit extensive wealth from both sides of his family.

  

George was also expected to inherit his father’s earldom, his mother’s estates, and potentially part of the Tiptoft inheritance through his grandmother. He was also heir presumptive to the vast Neville estates of his uncle, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, who had no surviving sons. Altogether, his future income was estimated at around £4,000 per year. comparable to that of the king’s brother, the Duke of Clarence.

In 1470, George was created Duke of Bedford, intended as a match for Elizabeth of York, the king’s daughter. However, his fortunes changed drastically after his father and uncle Warwick rebelled against King Edward IV in 1471. Both were killed, and although no act of attainder followed, George was left without most of his expected inheritance. In 1475, Parliament transferred the Neville lands to Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later Richard III), who had married Warwick’s daughter.

George retained only a half-share in his maternal grandfather’s estates. Just before coming of age in 1478, Parliament revoked his dukedom, claiming he lacked the wealth to support such a title. The title of Duke of Bedford was later granted to Edward IV’s infant son, George of York.

George Neville died on 4 May 1483 at the age of 18. Despite his early promise, he was a casualty of the shifting fortunes of England’s nobility during the Wars of the Roses.

Henry VII part 2

Edward IV Plantagenet.

THE BATTLE OF BOSWORTH.

In 1483, the sudden death of King Edward IV led to a power struggle. His young son, Edward V, was named heir, with Richard, Duke of Gloucester, appointed Lord Protector. However, Edward IV’s marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was declared invalid, making their children illegitimate. Richard seized the throne and became Richard III. The young princes, Edward and Richard, were lodged in the Tower of London and soon disappeared under mysterious circumstances.

princes in the tower.

Henry, supported by French troops and Welsh allies, landed in Wales on the 7th of August 1485 and marched toward London, gathering support. He reached out to his influential stepfather, Thomas Stanley, whose allegiance was uncertain. To ensure Stanley’s loyalty, Richard took Stanley's son, Lord Strange, as a hostage.

Richard marched from Leicester to intercept Henry. The two armies met near Market Bosworth on the 22^nd August 1485. Richard’s forces had the high ground, while Henry’s were arrayed below. The Stanleys stayed neutral initially, watching the battle unfold. Richard ordered his ally, the Duke of Norfolk, to attack. Though Henry lacked battle experience, the seasoned Earl of Oxford led his troops. Oxford formed a strong defensive wedge, and Norfolk was killed in the assault. Despite this, Richard still had the numerical advantage. Henry then attempted to appeal directly to Lord Stanley. Seeing this, Richard charged toward Henry, hoping to end the battle by killing him. In the chaos, Henry's standard bearer was slain. At a critical moment,William Stanley committed his troops to Henry’s side, overwhelming Richard’s cavalry. Richard III was killed in the melee and was later buried at Grey Friars in Leicester.

Henry Tudor entered London as King Henry VII on the 27th of August 1485 and was crowned on the 30th of October. On the 10th of December, Parliament formally requested that he marry Elizabeth of York, which he did five weeks later. This union symbolised the reconciliation of the warring houses of York and Lancaster.

Elizabeth of York (1465-1503)

Their marriage produced four surviving children, including the future Henry VIII. Elizabeth died in 1503, and Henry was reportedly devastated. Henry VII ruled for over 23 years, stabilizing England after years of civil war. His accomplishments included securing the Tudor dynasty, reforming government (such as through the Court of the Star Chamber), restoring the Crown’s finances, and maintaining peace in the realm.

HENRY VI: Founder of Tudor England.

Henry VII became the first Tudor king, effectively ending the Wars of the Roses and introducing the powerful Tudor dynasty. He declared himself king retroactively from the day before the battle to legitimise the confiscation of Yorkist property. To unite the warring houses of York and Lancaster, he honoured a pledge to marry Elizabeth of York in 1486, securing the his dynasty.

Though his reign brought relative peace, Henry faced several rebellions. In 1487, Yorkists backed Lambert Simnel, a boy claimed to be Edward of Warwick. The uprising was crushed at the Battle of Stoke. Another pretender, Perkin Warbeck, claimed to be one of the missing Princes in the Tower. He was supported by European powers but was eventually captured and executed in 1499. Henry dealt harshly with internal threats, including executing his former ally William Stanley and Warwick himself, to secure his throne. Henry used marriage alliances to strengthen his international position, most notably marrying his son Arthur to Catherine of Aragon, daughter of the powerful Catholic monarchs of Spain. He also arranged the marriage of his daughter Margaret to James IV of Scotland, which would later lead to the union of the English and Scottish crowns.

Economically, Henry was cautious and focused on increasing royal income. He revived old taxes and enforced financial obligations through harsh methods, often using bonds and recognisances to control the nobility. His two most notorious tax collectors, Empson and Dudley, became symbols of his oppressive fiscal policy and were executed under Henry VIII. He bolstered trade through treaties like the Magnus Intercursus with Burgundy, a major commercial treaty signed in 1496 between England and the Duchy of Burgundy. He also became involved in the lucrative alum trade. Alum was a valuable mineral used in textile’s. Henry also promoted naval strength, supporting explorers like John Cabot, who sailed west in 1497 under Henry's commission.

To consolidate law and order, Henry relied on justices of the peace and strengthened the authority of the Star Chamber to curb noble power. He restricted private armies and passed laws against "livery and maintenance," targeting the practice of retaining armed followers.

Later in life, personal tragedy struck with the deaths of his son Arthur and wife Elizabeth, which deeply affected him. He considered remarriage but never followed through. His final years were marked by increasing financial exactions and growing unpopularity due to his harsh policies. Henry VII died of tuberculosis on the 21^st of April 1509 at Richmond Palace and was buried beside his wife in Westminster Abbey. He was succeeded by his second son, Henry VIII who came to the throne due to the death of his brother Arthur. Despite criticism, Henry VII restored stability, strengthened the monarchy, and laid the foundations for the Tudor dynasty.

THE BATTLE OF STOKE.

The Battle of Stoke Field was fought on the 16th of June 1487 near East Stoke in Nottinghamshire and it is often considered the final battle of the Wars of the Roses. Although the Battle of Bosworth that happened in 1485 had established Henry VII as king and ended Yorkist rule, his reign was still insecure, prompting one last major Yorkist uprising. The rebellion centred on Lambert Simnel, a boy who, coached by priest Richard Symonds, claimed to be Edward, Earl of Warwick, a Yorkist heir imprisoned in the Tower of London. John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, who had once been named heir by Richard III, supported the cause. Backed by his aunt, Margaret of Burgundy, Lincoln gathered 2,000 German and Swiss mercenaries under Martin Schwartz and allied with Lord Lovell and other Yorkist exiles.

They first sailed to Ireland, where Yorkist support was strong. Simnel was crowned "King Edward VI" in Dublin on the 24^th of May 1487. With 4,500 Irish mercenaries and their continental allies, the force landed in Lancashire in early June and marched over 200 miles in five days. After a skirmish victory at Tadcaster and a diversionary attack on York, Lincoln moved south through Sherwood Forest, pursued by Henry VII’s growing army. On the16th of June, Lincoln's 8,000-strong force met Henry's army near East Stoke. The Yorkists occupied a hilltop position but were hemmed in by the River Trent on three sides. The Earl of Oxford led Henry’s vanguard, supported by seasoned commanders like Jasper Tudor and John de Vere. The battle began with a Yorkist charge, hoping to break the Lancastrian line quickly. Though initially shaken, Oxford held the line, and the longbowmen inflicted heavy losses, especially on the lightly armoured Irish kerns. The Yorkists, unable to retreat, were eventually overwhelmed. Lincoln, Schwartz, and Fitzgerald were killed; Lovell disappeared and was never conclusively seen again.

Simnel was captured but was spared by Henry, who recognized he had been a pawn. Simnel was put to work in the royal kitchens and later became a falconer. The Irish nobility and clergy who supported him were pardoned, though some clerics were later excommunicated by the Pope at Henry’s request. Henry commemorated his victory by raising his standard at Burham Furlong, marked today by a memorial. Many of his supporters were knighted in the aftermath. Henry used fines, rather than mass executions, to punish the rebels, a reflection of his strategy to weaken the nobility financially rather than provoke further unrest.

The battle solidified Henry VII’s hold on the throne and marked the end of large-scale dynastic conflict. However, Yorkist plots persisted, most notably with the appearance of another pretender, Perkin Warbeck, in the 1490s.

PERKIN WARBECK.

Perkin Warbeck (c. 1474 – 23 November 1499) was a pretender to the English throne who claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, one of the two Princes in the Tower and the younger son of King Edward IV. If true, he would have had a strong claim to the throne over Henry VII. Warbeck’s mysterious identity and persistent rebellions made him a significant threat. Warbeck was born in Tournai (modern-day Belgium) as Pierrechon de Werbecque, the son of a Flemish official. His story took a dramatic turn when he arrived in Cork, Ireland, around 1491. There, Yorkist sympathisers encouraged him to claim he was Richard, Duke of York. Warbeck gained early support from European courts, including that of Margaret of Burgundy, the sister of Edward IV, who publicly recognised him as her nephew.

He was also welcomed by James IV of Scotland, who even gave Warbeck his cousin, Lady Catherine Gordon, in marriage. James used Warbeck as a political tool to pressure Henry VII, but eventually grew tired of his presence and sent him away in 1497. Warbeck launched several failed attempts to land in England and Ireland to rally supporters, including the Battle of Deal in Kent and a failed siege of Waterford. His final attempt came when he landed in Cornwall in September 1497, hoping to exploit recent unrest there. Declared “Richard IV” by locals, he quickly attracted 6,000 followers but panicked and fled when royal troops approached. He was captured at Beaulieu Abbey and surrendered without a fight.

Initially treated with leniency by Henry VII, Warbeck confessed to being an impostor and was kept under guard at court. However, after attempting to escape and conspiring with Edward, Earl of Warwick, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London. In 1499, both were executed, Warbeck by hanging at Tyburn, and Warwick by beheading on Tower Hill.

Warbeck's story fueled speculation for centuries. Some believed he might truly have been Richard, the lost prince, due to his physical resemblance to Edward IV and the passionate support he received from key Yorkists. However, his own confession, likely made under duress, named him as a Fleming of modest origin. Despite being dismissed by the Tudor regime as a fraud, Warbeck's life has remained a topic of intrigue in history.

Warbeck was buried at Austin Friars, London, in an unmarked grave. His story is remembered as one of the most dramatic and persistent challenges to Tudor authority, highlighting the fragile nature of royal legitimacy in the turbulent aftermath of the Wars of the Roses.

Henry VII Part 1.

HENRY VII: Part 1

Before we talk about Henry VII, I want to explain to you a little about the world in which he was born. England was in the grip of a civil war called the War of the Roses. England was in chaos, and was an extremely dangerous place politically, power struggles and war was commonplace.

The Wars of the Roses: A Struggle for the English Crown

The Wars of the Roses was a civil wars fought in England between 1455 and 1487. The conflict arose from a power struggle between two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the red rose, and the House of York, represented by the white rose. The wars began when discontent with the weak rule of King Henry VI (a Lancastrian) allowed Richard, Duke of York, to challenge his authority. Over the next three decades, both houses fought for control of the English throne, leading to shifting alliances, multiple battles, and several changes of monarch. Key battles included Towton in 1461, where Edward IV of York claimed the throne, and Barnet and Tewkesbury in 1471, which crushed Lancastrian hopes. However, Yorkist rule weakened after Edward's death, especially under the controversial reign of Richard III. The conflict ended in 1487 when Henry Tudor, a Lancastrian with a distant claim, became king and married Elizabeth of York, uniting the warring factions. Their marriage symbolically ended the feud and began the Tudor dynasty. The Wars of the Roses were marked by bloodshed, betrayal, and dynastic rivalry, reshaping the English monarchy and paving the way for a more centralized, stable rule compared to what had been.

Now lets talk about the early part of Henry Tudors life...

The Early Life of Henry VII: A Journey Shaped by Conflict and Exile

Henry VII

Henry VII was born on January the 28th 1457, at Pembroke Castle in Wales during the height of the Wars of the Roses. From the moment of his birth, Henry’s life was entwined with political instability and danger.

His father, Edmund Tudor, was the half-brother of the Lancastrian King Henry VI. A nobleman of Welsh descent, Edmund was captured by Yorkist forces in South Wales and died in captivity, only months before Henry was born. This left Henry’s mother, a young noblewoman named Margaret Beaufort, widowed and alone. Though she descended from royal blood, her family's claim to the throne was not without controversy, and her influence at this stage of Henry’s life was limited by her youth. Following Edmund’s death, Henry was placed under the protection of his uncle, Jasper Tudor, a loyal Lancastrian and Earl of Pembroke. Jasper became a key figure in Henry’s early life, acting as his guardian and political shield in an era of constant power shifts. When Edward IV of the House of York took the throne in 1461, control of Pembroke Castle and young Henry passed to William Herbert, a Yorkist noble appointed by the new king. Henry was raised in the Herbert household for several years - safe, but in the care of the rival faction. This arrangement ended in 1469 when Herbert was executed after a political fallout. Jasper Tudor returned to escort Henry to the court during the brief restoration of the Lancastrian King Henry VI in 1470. But after Edward IV reclaimed power the following year, Henry was forced to flee once again, this time to Brittany, along with Jasper. Henry remained in exile for 14 years under the protection of Duke Francis II of Brittany and also in France. His childhood was as you can imagine far from stable, he was constantly moved in order to protect him from Yorkist supporters. He narrowly escaped attempts by English envoys to return him to Yorkist control. In one instance, he pretended to be ill to delay departure and ultimately found sanctuary in a monastery until the danger passed. With the deaths of key Lancastrian figures in battle or by execution, Henry gradually became the primary claimant to the Lancastrian cause. Though his claim was not the strongest by strict hereditary standards, he became a symbol of resistance and hope for those opposed to Yorkist rule. His Welsh heritage also became a powerful asset, Henry’s supporters drew on legend, claiming he was descended from Cadwaladr, the last ancient British king, and rallied behind his red dragon banner.

Henry's early life was defined by loss, exile, and survival. But these formative years shaped him into a cautious, politically savvy figure destined for a far greater role in England’s future.

I want to discuss more about Henrys parents Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort, both Lancastrians and both had an strong influences on Henrys childhood even though Edmund had died before Henrys birth and Margaret only got to visit him rarely. The ties they had with him strongly shaped Henrys childhood. 

Edmund Tudor, Father of a Dynasty

Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, was the father of Henry VII and a key figure in the lead-up to the Tudor dynasty. The son of Owen Tudor and Catherine of Valois the widow of Henry V, Edmund was born around 1430. His parents married in secret, defying a statute that forbade marriage to a dowager queen without royal consent. He was raised initially by the Abbess of Barking and he later came under the care of his half-brother, King Henry VI, who ensured his education and legitimized both Edmund and his brother Jasper in 1452. Edmund was made Earl of Richmond and given the wardship of the wealthy heiress Margaret Beaufort. In 1455, he married Margaret, she was just 12 years old and he was 24, she soon became pregnant, but Edmund would not live to see the birth of their son.

On the 10th of August 1456, during the early stages of the Wars of the Roses, Edmund was captured by Yorkist forces and imprisoned at Carmarthen Castle in Wales. He died after contracting Bubonic plague on 1st November, just two months before Henry VII was born, though murder was suspected and a trial was held, no one was found to be guilty. He was originally buried at Grey Friars in Carmarthen but his remains were later moved by his grandson Henry VIII to St David’s Cathedral, where they rest today.

Brass rubbing of Edmond Tudor's tomb at St.David's Cathedral, Wales.

Margaret Beaufort: Mother of the Tudor Dynasty

Margaret Beaufort, Henrys mother, was born on the 31st May 1443 at Bletsoe Castle, she was a descendant of King Edward III through her father, John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. After her father’s downfall and early death 

 -possibly by suicide- Margaret became his sole heiress, inheriting both wealth and a distant claim to the throne. At just one year old, Margaret’s wardship was granted to William de la Pole, who arranged a childhood marriage between her and his son, John. This union was later dissolved, and her guardianship passed to Edmund and Jasper Tudor, half-brothers of King Henry VI. In 1455, twelve-year-old Margaret married Edmund Tudor, who died the following year while she was seven months pregnant. At just thirteen, Margaret gave birth to Henry at Pembroke Castle. She never bore another child due to complications from the birth. Her son was raised by Jasper Tudor, while Margaret remarried twice, using her marriages to protect Henry’s interests. After the Lancastrians fell from power, Henry fled to France. Margaret, determined to see her son crowned, remained at court and later allied with Elizabeth Woodville against Richard III. She helped orchestrate Henry’s claim and supported his eventual rise to kingship. As “My Lady the King’s Mother,” Margaret gained rare legal and political autonomy, overseeing royal affairs and championing education, founding colleges at Cambridge. After Henry VII’s death in 1509, she ensured a smooth succession for her grandson, Henry VIII. She died shortly after his coronation. Margaret Beaufort was a determined, politically astute woman who played a pivotal role in founding the Tudor dynasty—ensuring her son became king and shaping the future of England.

Pembroke Castle

It was the Battle of Tewkesbury, that was the catalyst to Henry and Jaspers retreat from England.

Battle of Tewkesbury in Brief: The Clash That Sealed Edward IV's Power 

The Battle of Tewkesbury was a decisive conflict during the Wars of the Roses between the House of York and the House of Lancaster. Fought on the 4th of May 1471, it marked a turning point in the struggle for the English throne.The Yorkist forces, led by King Edward IV, faced the Lancastrians, commanded by Queen Margaret of Anjou and her son, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales. Edward IV had recently regained the throne after returning from exile and was determined to crush Lancastrian resistance. The two armies clashed near the town of Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire. The Yorkists, well-organized and tactically superior, won a resounding victory. Many prominent Lancastrians were killed or captured. Most notably, Prince Edward, the Lancastrian heir who was killed in the aftermath, either in battle or during his capture, sealing the fate of the Lancastrian cause. Queen Margaret was taken prisoner, and Henry VI, already imprisoned in the Tower of London, was murdered shortly after. The battle effectively left the House of York in control of the English throne. 

The death of Henry VI and his only son, left Henry VII in a hugely dangerous position. He was now an heir to the Lancastrian line, albeit tenuously. They were in no position to fight for the throne, many Lancastrians had been killed in battle and Edward had a lot of support. Henry, only a child at the time, was taken into exile...just waiting for the right time for his return to England and with it the recognition as king.

Part Two coming soon.

 

Richard III Part 2. The Battle of Bosworth Field.

BOSWORTH FIELD 

Bosworth Field was a hugely important part of British history, it was the start of the Tudor dynasty. Everybody has heard of the Tudors, most famously Henry VIII and Elizabeth I. However, it was Richard III defeat at the Battle of Bosworth Field that gave them the throne. 

It was Richard III who had just assented the throne, by questionable means, that was killed at Bosworth leaving the way open for Henry VII to take the crown. This was the start of the Tudors, but lets step back alittle and learn abit about how the Battle of Bosworth came to be. 

The Battle of Boswoth happened on the 22nd August 1485, this was the last battle in the War Of The Roses and the end of the Plantagenet dynasty. It was faught between the House of York and the House of Lancaster for control of the English throne. This is an all to familiar story during medieval history, power struggles and war. The Battle of Bosworth Field took place near Market Bosworth in Leicestershire, England. 

Now lets go back a little further, after the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471, where the Yorkists had been victorius, Henry Tudor who at the time was only fourteen had fled to France although were blown off course and landed in Brittany. He was offered asylum, but in reality Duke Francis II of Brittany realised the political value in keeping them in Brittany. Henry was the Lancastrian claimant to the throne and of great importance to the Lancastrian loyalists. Due to the political turmoil and danger to his life, he along with his uncle  Jasper Tudor were sent into exile. They later travelled to France, still in exile from England. Henry was in exile for around fourteen years until he returned in 1485, at this time Richard was on the throne and was possibly not popular, making it the perfect time for Henry to return. 

Richard's rule was associated with fear and suspicion and many nobles distrusted him, possibly believing that he had a part in the prince's disappearance. 

Henry Stafford

Public Domain.

BUCKINGHAMS REBELLION.

Henry Stafford 2nd Duke of Buckingham`s rebellion happened in October 1483, the rebellion ultimately failed but did weaken an already weak Richard. 

Led by Buckingham who was once an ally of Richard, the rebellion aimed to restore Edward V, whom Richard had deposed. Buckingham, disillusioned with Richard’s rule, allied with the exiled Henry Tudor and his mother, Margaret Beaufort. Support came from Edward IV loyalists and Yorkists. Meanwhile, Henry attempted to invade from Brittany with over 500 soldiers. A storm thwarted the landing, Henry’s fleet had been scattered by bad weather while at sea, leaving only two ships, one of them his own, anchored in Plymouth Sound. As he prepared to set sail and join the rebellion he got word of the

developments in England. A premature revolt in Kent had alerted Richard to the rebellion and caused it to collapse before Buckingham could fully act. The tide had turned against the uprising. These events are detailed in the Croyland Chronicle.

The Croyland Chronicle, from the Benedictine Abbey of Croyland, is a key source for late 15th-century English history. Once linked to Abbot Ingulf, parts were later deemed forgeries. Its reliability is debated due to unknown authorship, textual gaps, and limited efforts to recover or translate the original manuscript.

Richard had Buckingham executed for the treason on the 2nd November 1483. 

Was Buckingham involved in the disappearance of the princes?

Some historians suggest Henry Stafford may have murdered the Princes in the Tower, possibly without Richard III's knowledge. A Portuguese document and one from the College of Arms accuses Buckingham. However, many historians doubt that he acted alone, as access to the princes required Richard's approval. Richard’s failure to blame Buckingham after his execution weakens the theory. Though some suggest Buckingham had ambitions for the throne, most agree he wouldn’t have dared act without Richard’s consent or at least his knowledge. Others theorise that Henry Stafford became aware of Richards involvement in the Princes disappearance and that is what inspired him to rebel. We will never know!

Henry Tudors return.

Henry Tudor

Public Domain

Henry had perhaps the least right to the throne of any 15th century King, descending from an illegitimate liaison. However, on the 7th August 1485, 28-year-old Henry Tudor landed at Mill Bay, at the mouth of the Milford Haven waterway. Accompanied by around 2,000 French mercenaries funded by the French king, Charles VIII,  Henry launched his campaign to claim the English throne.

Henry chose Mill Bay for several strategic reasons. Familiarity was one: he was born at Pembroke Castle, just across the water, and his uncle, Jasper Tudor the Earl of Pembroke, had kept in contact with local allies during their time in France. This local knowledge likely helped secure early support.

Another key reason was secrecy. Mill Bay was a secluded spot, helping Henry avoid detection by royal observers stationed at Dale Castle, only 3km away. Though news of the landing reached King Richard by the 11th August, the initial arrival went unchallenged, giving Henry’s small army the chance to organize without interference. The decision to land at Mill Bay proved crucial to the success of Henry’s campaign and his rise to the throne.

THE BATTLE OF BOSWORTH FIELD 

Henry Tudors landing on the southwest coast of Wales on the 7th August 1485 and march inland, gained support en route to London. King Richard III quickly and confidently assembled his army and met Henry near Ambion Hill, close to Market Bosworth. Lord Stanley and Sir William Stanley arrived with troops but held back, initially offering Henry only four knights, including Sir John Savage, who led Henry’s left flank. Richard divided his substantially larger army into three groups under the Duke of Norfolk and the Earl of Northumberland. Norfolk’s troops faltered against the Earl of Oxford’s forces, and Northumberland failed to assist him. In a last gamble, Richard led a direct charge to kill Henry but was intercepted and killed by William Stanley’s forces. The Battle ended in a victory for Henry Tudor. 

Henry was crowned King Henry VII, founding the Tudor dynasty which would reshape British history. He commissioned favourable accounts of the battle, marking the start of the Tudor dynasty and a symbolic end to the Middle Ages.

As always history is always told through the eyes of the victor's. So Richard's defeat and Henry's accounts of the battle have strongly influenced our opinion of Richard III. Shakespeare’s portrayal also being somewhat propaganda of the time.  

What is your opinion of Richard III? 

Please comment below.

The exact battlefield location remains disputed.

Richard III Part One. Ruthless Usurper or Misunderstood?

Richard III: Overview.

Richard III: A Controversial King

Public Domain.

https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:King_Richard_III_cropped.png

Richard III was the last Plantagenet king of England and ruled for just over two years from 1483 until his death at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. His reign, though brief, left an enduring legacy that has sparked debate for centuries. Richard was born on the 2nd of October 1452, at Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire. He was the youngest son of Richard, Duke of York, and Cecily Neville an English noblewoman. He played a significant role in the Wars of the Roses, a series of conflicts between the rival houses of Lancaster and York for control of the English throne. York was represented by a white rose and a red rose represented the house of Lancaster. 

king Edward IV.

https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_IV,_Father_of_Elizabeth_of_York.jpg

Public Domain.

                                                                                                                                                                               

After the death of his brother, King Edward IV, in 1483, Richard was appointed Lord Protector for Edward’s young son, Edward V. However, amid claims of illegitimacy against Edward’s children, Richard took the throne himself. Edward V and his younger brother, Richard, Duke of York, were confined to the Tower of London, where they mysteriously disappeared in 1483. Their fate remains one of the greatest mysteries in English history, and many have accused Richard of orchestrating their deaths to secure his claim. What do you think? Did he have the two boys murdered? 

The Princes in the Tower.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Princes_in_the_Tower_by_John_Everett_Millais_(1878).png

Public Domain.

This question has been asked by many historians over the years. The mystery and questioning only increased on 17th July 1674 when workmen discovered two skeletons hidden at the tower. Many beleived they were the princes aged only twelve and nine at the time of their disappearance. The 1400s were a very grusome time, and monarchy was built on murder and deceipt. There is a strong possiblity that the remains are those of the two boys and that their uncle who was supposed to be their protector had them murdered (because he would not get his hands dirty himself).  He knew he was next in line after the two boys, he knew they were vulnerable after their fathers death, but did he? I`m leaning towards a yes, based on all the circumstantial evidence, but will we ever know definitively? I doubt it. 

His reputation was overshadowed by allegations of treachery and murder, and William Shakespeare’s play Richard III immortalized him as a villainous, power-hungry monarch, further cementing his negative image. He was portrayed and a hunchback and the discovery of his burial place in Leicester has proved that yes he suffered with a curvature of the spine, it was in no way as extreme a that described and played out in the theatre. This is yet another way in which his reputation has been tarnished. this does make me wonder if our belief in him as the person behind the missing princes has been, in many ways influenced.

Richard’s reign was marked by both progressive reforms and brutal power struggles. He implemented legal reforms aimed at improving the fairness of the justice system particularly for the poor and he made efforts to protect the rights of the common people. He also established the first council in the north in 1484, to improve access to justice. Richard had strong support from northern nobles, where he spent much of his earlier life as Duke of Gloucester. You could say he attempted to bridge the North, South divide, something politicians are still trying to accomplish today.

In 1485, Richard faced a formidable challenge from Henry Tudor, a Lancastrian claimant to the throne. Their armies clashed at the Battle of Bosworth Field, where Richard was killed, marking the end of the Plantagenet dynasty and the beginning of the Tudor era. His death ushered in Henry VII’s reign, which brought relative stability to England after decades of civil war. I will be going in to more detail about the Battle of Boswoth in my next blog.

For centuries, Richard III’s reputation was marred by propaganda from the victorious Tudors. However, recent discoveries, including the 2012 unearthing of his remains in a Leicester car park, have prompted a reevaluation of his legacy. Modern historians continue to debate whether Richard was a ruthless usurper or a capable ruler whose image was distorted by his enemies, or could it be that he was infact both. Being a capable king doesn`t negate his ability to be ruthless.  Regardless of the controversy, Richard III remains one of England’s most fascinating and enigmatic monarchs.

Share your views below. 

Attribution: Andrewrabbott.

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