Elizabeth I's First Days as Queen: The Decisions That Shaped Her Reign

Elizabeth I's First Days as Queen: The Decisions That Shaped Her Reign

Today I want to find out what happened during Elizabeth I's first days as Queen. After years of imprisonment and constant danger, she suddenly found herself ruling England at only twenty-five years old.

Elizabeth learned that Queen Mary I had died on the 17th of November 1558 while she was at Hatfield House. 

Although Elizabeth appeared calm and confident in public, it is quite possible that she felt nervous. She had spent much of her life watching people around her fall from power. Her mother, Anne Boleyn, had been executed when Elizabeth was only two years old. She had seen queens imprisoned, nobles executed and religious beliefs change with each new monarch. She knew better than almost anyone that wearing the Crown did not guarantee her safety.

Rather than rushing into massive dramatic changes, Elizabeth was careful. One of her first decisions was to keep the government functioning by confirming that most of Queen Mary's officials could remain in their posts temporarily. This avoided any panic and showed that England would continue to be governed in an orderly way while she chose the people she really trusted.

Within weeks she started appointing her own advisers. Her most important choice was William Cecil as her Principal Secretary. Cecil became one of her closest and most trusted advisers for decades. She also appointed trusted nobles and experienced administrators to the Privy Council, deliberately making it smaller than it had been under Mary. Elizabeth wanted loyal, capable advisers, but she made it clear that any final decisions would always be made by her.

Elizabeth also chose to make London the centre of her government. She still continued to visit other royal palaces around the country, but she established her principal court at the Palace of Whitehall, where she could oversee government, meet ambassadors and remain close to Parliament. Its central location next to the River Thames and close to Parliament made it an ideal base.

Elizabeth was faced with several urgent challenges during her first few months on the throne. She ordered a review of the finances, because she had inherited a country that was burdened by debt after years of war and heavy spending. Religion also needed to be handled carefully. Rather than introducing any immediate changes, Elizabeth took a cautious approach. She allowed time for Parliament to establish a religious settlement and made only small changes to church services. Ambassadors from across Europe also pressed the question of her marriage, hoping she would strengthen political alliances by choosing a husband. Elizabeth listened to the proposals but she refused to be rushed, she was determined that such an important decision would remain entirely her own. Meanwhile, preparations began for her coronation on the 15th of January 1559. The ceremony and the grand procession through London were carefully organised, and Elizabeth’s warmth towards the cheering crowds helped to create a strong bond with her people from the very beginning of her reign.

Many powerful men expected that, because she was a young unmarried woman, they would be able to influence or even control her. Foreign rulers hoped that she would marry one of their relatives, some English nobles believed that a husband should govern in her place. Elizabeth quickly proved them wrong. She listened carefully to advice but rarely allowed anyone to dictate her decisions. She understood that being underestimated was sometimes one of her greatest strengths.

Being a woman and a monarch presented her with unique challenges in the sixteenth century. Many people believed that women were naturally unsuited to rule. But she famously declared that although she was a woman, she had both the heart and courage needed to rule her country. 

The reaction across much of England was positive. After years of religious conflict and uncertainty, many people hoped that the young Queen would bring greater stability. Large crowds welcomed her as she travelled towards London for her coronation, and many believed that a new chapter was starting.

It is impossible to know exactly how much Anne Boleyn influenced Elizabeth's decisions, as Anne died when Elizabeth was very young. But, Elizabeth never forgot who her mother was. Anne had been intelligent, highly educated and politically aware, and Elizabeth inherited many of those same qualities. She knew how quickly her mother's fortunes changed, so Elizabeth may also have learned an important lesson. She trusted carefully, thought before acting, and never allow others to control her.

Elizabeth's first days as Queen were remarkable. It showed many of the qualities that defined her forty-four-year reign. She remained cautious but decisive, she was willing to listen but she was determined to rule in her own way. Those first decisions laid the foundations for one of the most famous reigns in English history.

Do you think that Elizabeth's difficult childhood helped her to make her one of England's greatest monarchs?

American soldiers crouch inside a U.S. Coast Guard landing craft on DDay

American soldiers crouch inside a U.S. Coast Guard landing craft as it heads towards the Normandy beaches on D-Day, 6 June 1944.

Jan and Miep Gies: The Resistance Heroes Who Did Far More Than Hide Anne Frank

Jan and Miep Gies: The Resistance Heroes Who Did Far More Than Hide Anne Frank

Today I want to find out a little bit more about Jan and Miep Gies.

Most people know Jan and Miep Gies as two of the brave helpers who supported Anne Frank and the seven others in the Secret Annex, but their courage went well beyond the Annex.

Jan and Miep first met while working at Schellekens Embroidery and Pleating Workshops in Amsterdam. Miep worked as a typist and Jan as a bookkeeper. When Miep started work as Otto Frank's secretary at Opekta in 1933, Jan would often meet up with her during lunch breaks. Jan got to know Otto Frank, and the two men developed a close friendship.

When the German occupation started to tighten its grip on the Netherlands, Jan and Miep chose to resist.

Miep used her position at Otto Frank's business to move around Amsterdam, gathering food, clothing, books, medicines and other essentials for the people in hiding, all at immense personal risk. She also helped to keep the office functioning as normally as possible, which was incredibly important for the safety of everyone involved.

Jan worked for Amsterdam's Social Services but was also active in the Dutch Resistance, helping to obtain forged identity papers, illegal ration cards and safe hiding places for people being hunted. Together, Jan and Miep also hid a Dutch university student, Kuno van der Horst, in their own home after he refused to sign a loyalty declaration.

After the Secret Annex was discovered on the 4^th of August 1944, Miep even went to the headquarters of the German Security Service in a desperate attempt to secure the release of those who had been arrested. She was sadly unsuccessful, but she did gather up Anne Frank's diary pages and notebooks and kept them until Otto Frank came after the war. Without Miep's actions, one of the world's most important eyewitness accounts of the Holocaust may have been lost forever.

We will never know exactly how many lives Jan and Miep helped to save. But their resistance work almost certainly reached many others through the forged papers, ration cards, safe houses and support that they helped to provide. The true number has been lost to history.

Jan and Miep never considered themselves heroes. They believed that when people needed help, you helped them. Their bravery serves as a powerful reminder that resistance was not always fought with weapons. Sometimes it was a forged ration card, a bag of groceries, an open front door, or the simple decision to stand up for another human being when it mattered most.

Why Did Victorians Cover Mirrors During Mourning?

Why Did Victorians Cover Mirrors During Mourning?

Today I want to take a look at one of the unusual Victorian mourning traditions. In many homes, when someone had died mirrors were covered with black cloth.

Now you may ask yourself, why? Well, there were several reasons for this. Some people believed that a soul could actually become trapped in a mirror before it had been able to pass on. Another belief was that if it was left uncovered it could let demons into your home, also that should you looked in the mirror you would be next to die. Others thought that to see your own reflection while you were grieving was a sign of vanity and that it distracted from remembering the person who had died. Grieving was taken very seriously during the Victorian Era and unlike today when we want to make grief easier and lighter. It seems to me that Victorian society often wanted you to prove how grief stricken you were. Society actually judged you for it. It is really sad in a way that at a time when you are vulnerable, Victorian society could still find a way to measure it.

Not every Victorian family followed this tradition, and it was never an official rule. But, it became well known, especially in households that observed strict mourning customs.

Whether it was based on superstition, religion, or simply respect for the dead, covering mirrors became a part of Victorian mourning.

Had you ever heard of this before?

Anne Frank Part 12: What Happened to the Anne Frank and the Others After Their Arrest?

Anne Frank Part 12: What Happened to the Anne Frank and the Others After Their Arrest?

Today I want to find out a little about what happened to the eight people from the Secret Annex after they were arrested. 

After their arrest on the 4th of August 1944, they were taken to the SD (Sicherheitsdienst) headquarters at Euterpestraat in Amsterdam, where they were interrogated. They were then transferred to the House of Detention (Huis van Bewaring) on the Weteringschans.

Anne Frank

The prison conditions were harsh. There were many other Jewish prisoners held there, along with members of the Dutch resistance, political prisoners, and people arrested for other reasons. By August 1944, Jews arrested during raids, discovered in hiding, or awaiting deportation were frequently held there. The prison was overcrowded, with cramped cells, limited food and poor sanitation. Prisoners often had little idea where they were going next or what would happen to them. This was the last time all eight of them were together. 

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Westerbork Camp

They were then sent to the Westerbork transit camp on the 8th of August. Because they had been caught in hiding, they were treated like criminals, placed in the punishment section and forced to carry out hard labour. On the 3rd of September 1944, they were placed on the last transport train from Westerbork to Auschwitz, they arrived about two and a half days later. By this stage the Second World War was turning against Germany. The Allied forces had liberated much of France and Belgium and were approaching the Netherlands, the Soviet Red Army was advancing from the east towards Poland. As a result, no further trains were sent from Westerbork to Auschwitz after this transport, making it the last of its kind.

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Auschwitz-Birkenau, 1944

When the train arrived at Auschwitz, the reality of the camp became clear. Guards shouted orders as the prisoners were forced onto the platform for a selection. Within minutes, the men were separated from the women, often without any chance to say goodbye. The prisoners had to hand over all of their belongings before their heads were shaved, they were stripped, disinfected and given thin striped prison uniforms. Their names were replaced with identification numbers, and they were sent into overcrowded barracks where hunger, disease and fear were part of life.

Fritz Pfeffer

Otto Frank, Hermann van Pels, Peter van Pels and Fritz Pfeffer were all sent to the men's camp. Anne, Margot, Edith Frank and Auguste van Pels stayed together in the women's camp at Auschwitz for several weeks. The conditions were beyond harsh but at least they still had each other during this time. In late October 1944, Anne and Margot were transferred to Bergen-Belsen, and Edith Frank stayed at Auschwitz. It was the last time they would all be together.

Peter van Pels

At Bergen-Belsen, Anne and Margot faced terrible overcrowding, starvation and disease. Both sisters tragically died there in February or early March 1945, only weeks before the camp was liberated. Edith Frank died in Auschwitz in January 1945. Hermann van Pels was killed at Auschwitz, Fritz Pfeffer died at Neuengamme, Peter van Pels survived the death march from Auschwitz but died at Mauthausen on the 5th of May 1945, just three days before the camp was liberated. Auguste van Pels died during forced transfers between camps in the final months of the war. Otto Frank was the only one of the eight to survive.

Edith Frank

After the war, Otto returned to Amsterdam, where Miep Gies gave him Anne's diary. She had managed to save it from the floor of the annex after the family had been taken, and she had kept it safe in the hopes of returning it to Anne. 

Margot Frank

I would like to take a moment and remember Anne Frank, the seven people who shared the Secret Annex with her, and the millions of innocent victims of the Holocaust. May they never be forgotten. No matter what is happening in the world, we must always remember the cost of hatred.

Norwich Cathedral Part 4: What Did the Benedictine Monks Who Lived There Actually Do?

Norwich Cathedral Part 4: What Did the Benedictine Monks Who Lived There Actually Do?

 

I want to take a little bit of time to look at the Benedictine monks. They lived in the Monastery that was connected to the cathedral and they dedicated their lives to prayer, learning and helping others.

The monks would have followed the Rule of Saint Benedict. It encouraged a life of worship, work and study. Their day started very early, before sunrise. They went to morning prayers in the cathedral but they also went several more times each day.

The monks came from many different backgrounds. Some were from ordinary families, while others came from wealthy or noble households. Some joined as boys to get an education, others chose the monastic life as adults. Once they became monks, they promised to live a life of prayer, obedience and simplicity.

Joining the monastery was not easy. Anyone who wanted to become a Benedictine monk had to first spend about a year as a novice. They had to learn the Rules of Saint Benedict and the daily routine. Only if both the monk and the monastery agreed would he take lifelong vows and become a full member of the community.

When they were not praying, the monks kept busy with many tasks. Some of them copied books like the bible and important documents by hand. At the time every page had to be written individually. This was skilled work because many people could not read or write. Some worked in the kitchens, gardens and workshops, others cared for the monastery's library and records.

Food was also important, they usually ate simple meals of bread, soup or stew, vegetables, cheese and fish. Much of it was grown or produced at the monastery by the monks themselves. They also had many fasting days during the year, when they were not allowed to eat meat from animals such as cows, sheep or pigs. Instead, they ate fish, eggs and other simple foods. The monks ate together in silence while one monk read from the Bible or other religious books.

The monastery played an important role in the community. Travellers and pilgrims could shelter there, the poor and sick were often helped, and they took education seriously. It was not just a place of faith and religion, it was also a place of learning and of charity.

This way of life continued until the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII in the 16th century. Although the monastery has sadly disappeared, Norwich Cathedral still stands as a reminder of the Benedictine monks. 

What part of a medieval monk's life do you think would have been the most difficult?

Anne Frank Part 11:What Happened to the Helpers After the Arrests?

Anne Frank Part 11:What Happened to the Helpers After the Arrests?

Meip and Jan Gies

Today I want to take a look at what happened to the brave men and women who helped Anne Frank and the others in the Secret Annex after the arrests on the 4th of August 1944. They had risked everything for more than two years, and now they were faced with the consequences.

Victor Kugler and Johannes Kleiman were arrested alongside the people in hiding. As the senior employees running Otto Frank’s business, the German authorities had strong evidence that they had knowingly helped to hide Jewish families. After being questioned, both men were sent to the SS prison camp at Amersfoort. Johannes Kleiman was released after a week because of his poor health, but Victor Kugler was transferred to forced labour camps. As the war came to an end in 1945, he escaped during an Allied air attack and managed to survive.

Bep Voskuijl 

Miep Gies and Bep Voskuijl were also questioned, but they were not arrested. Historians are still unsure exactly why. Miep later believed that SS officer Karl Silberbauer noticed her Austrian accent during her questioning and chose not to detain her, but no one knows his true reason. Bep may have been released because the authorities didn’t have enough evidence to prove she was involved. Both women were incredibly fortunate, as they could easily have both been imprisoned.

Miep’s husband, Jan Gies, was not at Otto Frank’s business when the Secret Annex was discovered, so he completely avoided being arrested. He continued to work with the Dutch resistance, he helped other people in hiding and also obtained illegal ration cards. Together, Jan and Miep never gave up hope that those taken from the Annex might survive and return home.

Miep and Bep returned to the Secret Annex after the arrests. They found Anne’s diary and other papers on the floor. Miep kept them safe. She refused to read them because she hoped that one day she would be able to return them to Anne.

After the war, Otto Frank was the only person from the Secret Annex to return. Miep gave Anne’s diary to him, and after reading his daughter’s words, he decided they should be published. Without the courage of Miep Gies, Jan Gies, Bep Voskuijl, Victor Kugler, Johannes Kleiman and the other helpers, one of the world’s most important personal accounts of the Holocaust may never have survived.

Their bravery did not end with the arrests. Even after everything had been lost, they ensured that Anne Frank’s voice would live on.

Do you think the bravery of Anne Frank’s helpers receives the recognition it deserves?

Next time, we will start to find out what happened to Anne Frank, her family and the others immediately after their arrest.