The Victorian Servant Whose Diaries Revealed The Reality Of Domestic Service

The Victorian Servant Whose Diaries Revealed The Reality Of Domestic Service

I have recently  been writing about Nella Last and Mass Observation during World War Two. This made me want to find out about other diarists through history that give us a greater insight into everyday life. Today I want to talk about a woman whose story completely changed the way many historians understand domestic servants in Victorian Britain.

 Her name was Hannah Cullwick, and through her diaries and personal writings she gave us an unusually honest account of what servant life was like in the Victorian age. What really stuck out to me was how exhausting, lonely, and emotionally complicated it was, even though servants were everywhere in Victorian society.

Hannah Cullwick was born in 1833, into a working-class family. Like many girls from struggling families during the nineteenth century, she had very little choice in her future. Britain during the Victorian period was changing rapidly because of industrialisation, but for many poor women the safest way to earn regular wages was through domestic service. Hannah was only about eight years old when she began working as a servant.

Domestic servants were everywhere in Victorian Britain. Wealthier households relied on maids, cooks, nursemaids, laundry workers, and housekeepers to keep their homes running smoothly. But despite how essential they were, many servants often lived almost invisible lives. They often worked from before dawn until late in the night. They scrubbed floors, blackened stoves, carried heavy water buckets, washed clothes, lit fires, emptied chamber pots, and prepared food. Their work was physically exhausting and they had very little privacy or freedom. Hannah’s diaries show us just how tiring domestic life could be. She often described sore hands, aching bodies, dirt, sweat, and the constant work.

One thing I didn’t realise was how strongly Victorian society judged servants. Employers expected obedience, respectability, and silence. A servant’s behaviour reflected on the household, so many women lived under strict rules and constant supervision. Hannah seemed very aware of the class divide between servants and employers. She understood that many wealthy people viewed servants as socially inferior, even while relying completely on them.

In the 1850s Hannah met Arthur Munby, a wealthy barrister and writer who became fascinated by working-class women and female labourers. Their relationship was unusual and secretive. Munby admired Hannah’s strength and hard work. Hannah sometimes appeared proud of her servant life. But the relationship was unequal because of the enormous class difference between them. They secretly married in 1873, although the marriage was hidden from most people because Munby was worried there would be a  social scandal. Even after they got married, Hannah often continued to work as a servant.

What makes Hannah Cullwick’s story so important is that she left us her own words. So many Victorian servants were never able to record their feelings or experiences, but Hannah did. Through her diaries we can take a small glimpse into  the reality of domestic service. Many women took pride in the hard work, but they were also exhausted. They experienced humiliation, isolation, and frustration. Many servants spent their entire lives caring for other people’s homes but they had very little security or independence of their own.

When I read about Hannah, I cannot help but wonder how many other servants silently carried the same burdens without having their stories told.

 Do you think that Victorian society appreciated the people that kept their households functioning?

The Royal Progresses Of Elizabeth I And The Pressure They Brought To Tudor England

The Royal Progresses Of Elizabeth I And The Pressure They Brought To Tudor England

Yesterday I wrote about what ordinary people may have thought of the Tudor monarchs, and I mentioned the royal progresses of Queen Elizabeth I. Today I want to find out a little more about what these progresses actually involved and how towns and villages prepared for them. They were not simply glamorous journeys of pageantry. For many ordinary people, a royal progress could bring with it excitement, fear, opportunities and a huge amount of pressure.

Royal progresses became especially important during the Tudor period. Rather than staying permanently in London, Tudor monarchs travelled around the country with large households made up of courtiers, servants, guards, musicians, cooks, and officials. Henry VIII travelled widely, partly because he enjoyed hunting and magnificent displays of royal power, but also because rulers needed to be seen by their subjects. In an age without newspapers, photographs, or television, many people would never see their monarch in person in any other way. A visit from the king or queen could therefore feel almost unbelievable.

By the reign of Elizabeth I, royal progresses had become carefully planned political events. Elizabeth travelled across southern England for many summers, staying at the homes of nobles and wealthy courtiers. This allowed her to display her royal authority but it also reduced some of the financial strain that came with feeding the enormous royal household at court. Noble families would often spend huge amounts of money in order to prepare for her arrival. Hosting the queen could improve status and influence, so they took full advantage. But if you failed to impress her you could be humiliated and it could even be politically damaging.

Preparations for a royal progress usually began weeks or even months ahead of time. Roads might need to be repaired, buildings cleaned, and the decorations prepared. Local officials would have worried about the organisation and the expense. Villages and towns could suddenly find themselves responsible for feeding hundreds of people and providing accommodation for royal servants, horses, carts, and guards. Fresh food, ale, candles, firewood, and bedding all had to be found. For poorer communities this could cause real anxiety because the costs were sometimes so overwhelming.

Despite all of the pressure, many people probably still felt a level of excitement. Church bells would ring out when the monarch was approaching. Crowds gathered along the roads in the hopes of getting a glimpse of the royal procession.

It may well have been a time that children remembered for the rest of their lives. Some towns organised plays, music, speeches and huge elaborate welcomes that were filled with symbolism praising the monarch. One famous progress happened in 1575 when Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, hosted Elizabeth for nearly three weeks at Kenilworth Castle. The entertainment was extraordinary. There were fireworks, bear baiting, hunting, dancing, musicians, masques, and large outdoor performances. Actors that were dressed as characters from classical mythology greeted the queen, and there were dramatic speeches praising her wisdom and beauty. At one point, a performer pretending to be the “Lady of the Lake” appeared on the water to welcome Elizabeth. Dudley spent a fortune on the visit, partly because many people believed he still hoped to marry her. People understood that the queen’s reaction mattered greatly.

Not everyone welcomed progresses as warmly though. While the nobles might compete for royal favour, ordinary labourers most likely resented the extra taxes, additional labour demands or the rising prices they had to pay to fund the visit. Inns became overcrowded and supplies would quickly disappear. Some villagers may have been worried about saying or doing the wrong thing in front of royal officials.

For a short time, the ordinary villages and market towns of England were transformed by the glitzy world of Tudor royalty.

Do you think that you would have felt excitement or would you have been worried about the disruption and expense it would bring?

Image info:

Artist: Attributed to Robert Peake the Elder

Date: 1600

Procession portrait of Elizabeth I

How Tea Became Britain’s Wartime Comfort During The Second World War

How Tea Became Britain’s Wartime Comfort During The Second World War

Today I want to talk about something that may seem completely ordinary, but during the Second World War it became a huge comfort and morale boost for millions of people across Britain. Tea was not just a drink, for many people, it became part of their survival. It seems to have been an emotional support and it became more than just a simple cup of tea it was reassurance.

Before the war even began in 1939, tea was, as it is today, a huge part of British life. Rich and poor alike drank it. It was affordable, warm, and familiar. When war broke out and daily life became full of air raid sirens, blackouts, rationing, and anxiety. So people clung even more tightly to routines that made life feel somewhat normal. Tea became one of those routines.

The British government understood this almost immediately. Food shortages became a serious concern because German U-boats threatened shipping routes that brought supplies into Britain. Many foods were rationed, but tea was treated differently because leaders believed it was vital for morale. Although tea itself was rationed from 1940, the government worked hard to make sure supplies continued arriving in to Britain. People were usually allowed around two ounces per week, and for many families every spoonful was precious.

Tea was especially important during the Blitz. After bombing raids, tired families left the cold shelters. They were frightened, cold, and sometimes shaken up. One of the first things that was offered at rest centres was usually a cup of tea. It warmed them up and was comforting. Volunteers from the Women’s Voluntary Service, known as the WVS, played a major role. Women worked long hours serving tea from mobile canteens near bomb sites, railway stations, and military centres. Firefighters, rescue workers, soldiers, and civilians all relied on these moments, however short, of comfort. In the middle of all the destruction and grief, holding a warm mug may have helped people to calm people down and make them feel less alone.

Tea was unifying, Factory workers drank it during their long shifts making weapons and supplies. Soldiers drank it in their barracks and on ships. Families served it up after receiving bad news. It became associated with endurance, community, and support. In so many ways, tea represented the idea that ordinary life would continue in spite of everything that the war was throwing at people.

It is so fascinating that something as simple as tea carried so much weight.

Do you think that these small comforts became even more important because they reminded people of peace time?

The Harsh Reality Of Victorian Homelessness And The Penny Sit-Ups

The Harsh Reality Of Victorian Homelessness And The Penny Sit-Ups

Today I want to tell you about something that really sums up just how difficult life could be for the poorest people in Victorian Britain. The so called “Penny Sit-Ups” and the shelters that existed for homeless people. Behind the strange name there were men, women, and sometimes even children simply trying to survive another cold night using whatever money they had left.

During the nineteenth century, Britain’s towns and cities grew rapidly because of the Industrial Revolution. Thousands of people moved into cities like London, Manchester, and Liverpool looking for work in factories, docks, and workshops. Some managed to find stable jobs, but many others were forced to live on the edge of destitution. Wages were often low and unreliable, accidents at work were all too common, and an illness could destroy a family’s income. If somebody lost their job or became too sick to work, they could very easily lose their home as well.

By the Victorian period, homelessness had become a major problem in large cities. Workhouses existed for the destitute, but many people were terrified of them. Families were often separated if they entered the workhouse and conditions were harsh and humiliating, with strict rules. Because of this, many homeless people looked for cheaper and less frightening alternatives.

This was where the “Penny Sit-Ups” became known. In some lodging houses and shelters, a person could pay a single penny for the chance to spend the night sitting indoors, often leaning forward over a rope stretched across a room. The rope supported them slightly while they slept sitting upright. In the morning, the rope would be lowered and everyone would have to leave. Can you imagine how uncomfortable and degrading this must have been, especially during winters. But for many people it was better than sleeping outside on dangerous streets.

If somebody had a little more money, perhaps four pennies, they might be able to afford a bed in what became known as a “fourpenny coffin.” These were narrow wooden sleeping boxes stacked beside one another. They offered a tiny amount of privacy and warmth compared to the streets, but conditions were usually overcrowded, dirty, and unhealthy. Disease spread easily in poor lodging houses, and many people struggled with hunger, exhaustion, and possibly even loneliness.

During the later nineteenth century, charities and religious organisations began trying to improve conditions for the homeless. One figure who tried to help was William Booth. He founded The Salvation Army in 1865. They opened shelters, soup kitchens, and workshops. Some reformers genuinely wanted to help the poor to rebuild their lives, but Victorian society often divided the poor into the “deserving” and “undeserving,” and many homeless people were unfairly blamed for their situation. The “deserving poor” were usually seen as the people who had fallen into hardship through no fault of their own. People like widows, orphaned children, the elderly, disabled people, or workers that had been injured in accidents. These people usually received more sympathy and were considered more worthy of charity or help.

The “undeserving poor,” were judged far more harshly. These were people who were unemployed, homeless, struggling with alcohol, or unable to keep steady work. They were accused of being lazy, immoral, and irresponsible. Victorian society could be very judgemental, and many wealthier people believed that poverty was caused by bad choices rather than their difficult living conditions, low wages, illness, or economic problems.

I can’t even begin to imagine the stress of living like this. They must have felt invisible to society. But people still tried to support one another, and to hold onto a little bit of dignity in the incredibly harsh circumstances.

I think stories like this are so important to remember because they remind us that behind all the history books were real people.

Do you think that Victorian society really understood the suffering that people faced by homeless people?

What Ordinary Tudor People Really Thought About Their Monarchs

What Ordinary Tudor People Really Thought About Their Monarchs

Yesterday we talked about the execution of Anne Boleyn and the affects surrounding it, and it made me ask myself another question. What did ordinary Tudor people actually think about the royal family? 

We often look back at the Tudors and see the magnificent palaces and the dramatic and dangerous stories, but the vast majority of people who lived in Tudor England were not courtiers. They were regular people, they were farmers, servants, labourers, merchants, soldiers, apprentices, and craftsmen all trying to survive in a very difficult world. Their relationship with the monarchy was complicated. It was often a combination of loyalty, fear, admiration, resentment, hope, and sometimes desperation.

At the beginning of the Tudor period, many people were probably just relieved that the Wars of the Roses had ended. When Henry VII became king after Bosworth in 1485, stability I would imagine mattered more to many people than the glitz of royalty. Years of war had damaged many noble families and created huge uncertainty to the whole country. Henry VII gained a reputation for being careful and financially strict. Noble families sometimes disliked his heavy taxation and fines, but many ordinary people probably appreciated the fact that England was remaining relatively peaceful. Peace usually meant that there were fewer disruptions to farming and trade. Meaning people would have found survival a little easier.

There was still a strong deference towards the monarchy. Tudor society was hierarchical and most people genuinely believed kings and queens were chosen by God. Questioning royal authority could be dangerous not only in the political sense but also spiritually. The monarch was after all seen as ruling by divine authority on Earth. Many everyday people would never see the monarch in person, but royal events would still have influenced their lives. There would have been proclamations, taxes, sermons, celebrations, and of course, punishments. To many of the lower classes in Tudor England the royal family must have felt very distant and almost mythical.

Under Henry VIII, feelings about the monarchy became much more divided.

 Today he is usually remembered for his six wives and larger than life personality, but ordinary people experienced his reign very differently. Some admired him in his younger years. He was charismatic, athletic, generous in public, and represented strength and magnificence as royalty was expected to do. He held royal tournaments, feasts, and embarked on huge building projects to display his wealth and power. Some people must have looked at these projects with some pride, maybe seeing them as symbols of England’s greatness and not just of Henry’s ego. They would also have projected this image to foreign visitors, ambassadors, and rivals, helping England to appear wealthy, cultured, and powerful on the European stage. Which would have been extremely important to portray, any hint of England’s weakness could encourage foreign powers to take advantage. 

Other people may have wondered to themselves why so much money was spent on what they may have seen as frivolous things when ordinary families were struggling to survive the poor harvests and rising prices. Sounds somewhat familiar, doesn’t it?

Taxes could cause real anger, just like they do today. They were especially resented when they were for wars in France or Scotland. Many ordinary men could be forced into military service and some would have never returned home. But, Tudor monarchs also gave alms and supported charitable works. Medieval and Tudor rulers believed charity helped demonstrate Christian duty and perhaps even aided salvation. Some great building projects, churches, hospitals, and colleges could therefore be viewed as both acts of piety and displays of vanity.

The break with Rome changed ordinary lives enormously. The dissolution of the monasteries during Henry VIII’s reign destroyed institutions that had provided charity, food, medical help, and spiritual solace for centuries. Wealthier nobles sometimes even benefited by gaining former church lands, but poorer communities would have suffered badly. The little support they had was destroyed. This helps to explain why rebellions like the Pilgrimage of Grace gained so much support in the north. Some people were worried their old world was disappearing.

Edward VI was Henry’s only surviving legitimate son and a Protestant. He was surrounded by powerful advisers, and religious change accelerated again. For many ordinary people this period must have felt confusing and maybe even unsettling.

But then came Mary I, who tried to restore Catholicism. Today she is often remembered mainly as “Bl**dy Mary,” but opinions at the time were much more divided. Many Catholics welcomed her restoration of the old religion. Protestants, however, feared persecution. Her marriage to Philip of Spain was also a worry to many English subjects who were anxious about foreign influence on the country.

Finally came Elizabeth I, who became one of the most popular Tudor monarchs with large sections of society. She was a careful monarch who crafted her public image. She understood the importance of spectacle. She took part in royal progresses which allowed ordinary people to actually see her travelling through towns and villages. Her popularity increased especially in 1588 after the defeat of the Spanish Armada. But even during Elizabeth’s reign there were hardships, including poverty, food shortages, and heavy taxation during wartime. Poorer people did not necessarily experience the “Golden Age” in the same way the wealthier people did, and her popularity varied regionally and economically.

What fascinates me most is that Tudor people probably viewed the royal family much more personally than we may think. A monarch’s decisions could influence religion, food prices, employment, war, punishment, and even survival. Royal marriages and deaths could genuinely create fear or celebration because they affected the stability of the country. Some people loved their monarchs, some feared them, and some just endured whatever changes arrived from above because they had little choice.

I also think it is interesting how differently we judge Tudor monarchs today compared to people living at the time. Modern people often admire figures for their personality or their accomplishments, but ordinary Tudor people were more likely to care about whether they brought peace, stable prices, fair taxes, or religious security. Basically they wanted a boring monarch!

Do you think ordinary Tudor people loved their monarchs, or did they fear them?

Image info:

An Allegory of the Tudor Succession: The Family of Henry VIII

Date: 1590

Collection: Yale Center for British Art

The Ordinary Wartime Housewife Who Created One Of Britain’s Greatest Diaries

The Ordinary Wartime Housewife Who Created One Of Britain’s Greatest Diaries

Yesterday we found out about Mass Observation and today we are going to learn a little about Nella Last, one of the most famous diarists connected to the project. What I love about her story is that she was not a politician, celebrity, or historian. She was an ordinary housewife from Barrow-in-Furness whose personal feelings and thoughts ended up becoming one of the most important records of everyday life during the Second World War.

Nella Last was born Nellie Lord on the 4th of October 1889 in Barrow-in-Furness in Lancashire. Her father worked as a railway clerk, and in 1911 she married Will Last who was a joiner and shopfitter. They had two sons, Arthur and Clifford, and for many years Nella lived the normal routine of domestic life that was expected of most women of her generation. She seemed to find life difficult and struggled with anxiety.

In 1939, at the age of forty-nine, she began writing for Mass Observation. She described herself as “Housewife 49.” What started as a diary gradually became a huge record of daily life, it eventually reached around twelve million words.

In her diaries, she said that she felt restricted by domestic life and was sometimes lonely in her marriage. Will was generally portrayed as a quiet, traditional, and often emotionally distant man.

She appears to have had a close relationship with her two sons, Arthur and Clifford. Her diaries show that she worried about them constantly during the War. She seemed to be especially close to Clifford and she encouraged his artistic talents. She seems to have been closer to her children than to her husband. 

During the war she volunteered with the Women’s Voluntary Service and the British Red Cross, helping her community while also recording her thoughts, worries, frustrations, and hopes. This seemed to give her a sense of purpose.

Her diary was an incredible peek inside the life of wartime Britain. She wrote about everything from rationing and bombing raids to family tensions and the changing roles for women during the war. The bombing of Barrow in 1941 affected her badly, her own home was damaged.

 Writing seemed to give Nella a confidence and independence she previously didn’t have. It allowed her to express feelings that she may previously have kept hidden.

After the Second World War Clifford emigrated to Australia, where he became a respected sculptor with works displayed in galleries including the Art Gallery of Ballarat. Nella was exceptionally proud of all his achievements.

She continued to write into the Mass Observation long after the war, giving us another great insight into post-war Britain.

After her death in 1968, her diaries were published and later inspired the television drama Housewife, 49 starring Victoria Wood. Nella Last’s words remain one of the most powerful and incredible personal accounts of ordinary British life during wartime.

Image info:

Nella and Clifford

The Heartbreaking Life Of Joseph Merrick The So Called Elephant Man

The Heartbreaking Life Of Joseph Merrick The So Called Elephant Man

Today I want to talk about a rather sad story, the life of the so called “Elephant Man,” Joseph Merrick. The more I learned about him, the more I realised how often his humanity was completely overlooked during his lifetime. Behind the public curiosity and cruel treatment was a gentle and intelligent man who spent much of his life just wanting kindness, dignity, and acceptance.

 

Joseph Merrick was born on the 5^th of August 1862 in Leicester, England. When he was born, he appeared to be a healthy baby boy. As he grew up, unusual growths and deformities began to affect his body. His skin started to thicken, parts of his face and his limbs became enlarged, and his ability to walk became increasingly difficult. Modern doctors still debate exactly what condition he actually had. Many now believe it may have been Proteus syndrome rather than the illness that was suggested during his lifetime.

 

Joseph’s childhood was painful both emotionally as well as physically. Victorian society could be extremely cruel towards people who looked different. His mother died when he was still quite young, and his life became even harder for him. He struggled to find work because many employers were frightened of his appearance. He had jobs in factories and as a street hawker, but people just stared at him and mocked him. They often tried to  avoid him completely. He must have been so lonely and humiliated.

 

Eventually, with very few options left, Joseph joined the world of the travelling sideshows. He was displayed to paying crowds under the name “The Elephant Man.” Some visitors treated him as a spectacle, but this work  gave him a way to survive in a society that offered him very little compassion. Those who actually knew him  described him as polite, thoughtful, and sensitive.

 

In 1884, Joseph met a London surgeon named Frederick Treves at the London Hospital. Treves became fascinated by his condition. He gradually started to learn that Joseph was more than just a curiosity. Joseph was offered a permanent room at the hospital, where he was able to finally get some comfort, friendship, and protection.

 

Sadly, Joseph’s health continued to decline. On the 11^th of April 1890, at only twenty-seven years old, he died in his room at the hospital. His story is heart breaking. The more I read about Joseph Merrick, the more I find myself wondering how many people judged him without ever truly seeing the person underneath.

 

Do you think Victorian society would have treated Joseph Merrick differently if people had understood his condition better?